A Comparative Analysis of American and Kenyan Cultures

Sex and Marriage, Money and Success: A Comparative Analysis of American and Kenyan Cultures In the history of human societies, geographic differences are considered to be a factor that led to different lifestyles, values and beliefs that prevailed and have been the distinct characteristic of specific societies in the world today. From a broader viewpoint, it can be said that Asian cultures differ from North American, European, South American, and African cultures. However, it can also be said that there are similarities between North American, European, and African cultures, in the same way that Asian, South American, and again, African cultures share specific values and beliefs. These similarities and differences demonstrate that we are different from each other in so many ways, but we also have similarities that link each individual with another, and ultimately, that we are interdependent with each other. This paper discusses in detail the differences between two cultures that seem to have different histories and heritage, but are, in specific ways, similar to each other as well. These cultures are the American and Kenyan cultures, and their point of comparison and contrast would be on the issues of money and success and sex and marriage. The discussion that follows posits that American values about sex are more liberal because of they are more freely expressed than in Kenyan culture; however, Kenyan views on marriage are considered more liberal in that they subsist toShow MoreRelatedInfluence of Culture on Strategic Human Resource6353 Words   |  26 PagesPage 1 Influence of Culture on Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) Practices in Multinational Companies (MNC) in Kenya: A Critical Literature Review Presented By PROFESSOR PETER K’OBONYO BEATRICE DIMBA (PhD Candidate: Strathmore University, Kenya) Contacts: Professor Peter K’Obonyo Deputy Principal University of Nairobi, Kenya College of Humanities and Social Sciences P O Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya Beatrice Dimba Ole Sangale Road, P O Box 59857 00200 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: (254-020)Read MoreSouth Constituency, Turkana County, Kenya2166 Words   |  9 Pageseducation programs in Turkana North District. The study will be guided by the following research question: What factors influence women’s participation in ABE programs in Turkana North Constituency? Significance of the Study This study will support the Kenyan Education Sector and other stakeholders to better understand the problems related to non-participation of women adult learners in Turkana County. Moreover, the Directorate of Kenya Adult Education, under which ABE programs fall, will be better placedRead MoreWays to Prevent Genocide2798 Words   |  11 Pagesa national and state entity. The illegal US attack of Iraq was and is a humanitarian upheaval. Some try to explain this upheaval as a side-effect. They justify their idea on the absenteeism of intent. Reviewing valid principles of global law and American procedure towards Iraq, it has been proven that the humanitarian disaster present in Iraq is an indispensable component of US policy, constituting calculated genocide against the citizens of Iraq. The purpose that some propose is absent is openlyRead MoreReview of Conrad Kottaks Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity2863 Words   |  11 Pagesacademics who review the text and provide the author with substantive feedback. Though the book betrays its own biases and views (the author is a cultural anthropologist from the American Midwest), Professor Kottak is careful to outline the field of anthropology in as broadly useful and neutral manner as possible for American students. The book is truly global in its context, and it is careful to avoid any of anthropologys past failings relating to Eurocentric bias by including all countries withinRead MoreMarket segmentation of the Nike company 3635 Words   |  15 Pagesthat people who are similar in income, culture, and perspectives naturally gravitate toward one another. Once these people move to their neighborhoods, they become even more alike and share similar consumer behaviors. When a store asks for your zip code when you make a purchase, it’s using geodemographics as a segmentation technique. Furthermore, the characteristic if the consumer is depends on their income. For example, the Nike Shoes has been done an analysis the respondent of buying for the NikeRead MoreKenyan Tourism Industry11160 Words   |  45 Pagesand suggest ways to improve Ecotourism in Kenya. What are the main challenges of Ecotourism? What are the feasible benefits that can ecotourism bring? Lastly is Ecotourism in Kenya sustainable? The paper also attempts to discuss the Kenya’s SWOT analysis as an Ecotourism destination, the protected areas including national parks and reserves, and some of the organisations promoting ecotourism in Kenya. To further explain this, the paper has used an Eco rating of lodges in Kenya by Ecotourism KenyaRead MoreImpact of Hrm7495 Words   |  30 Pagessupplanting the primacy of the nation state with transnational corporations and organizations, and eroding local cultures and traditions through a global culture (Kellner, 1989). Hazel Gachoka Gachunga is a lecturer in human resource management in the School of Human Resource Development at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. 1 36 The emergent global economy and culture can be described as a ‘network society’ which is grounded in new communications and information technologyRead MoreStudent7526 Words   |  31 Pagessupplanting the primacy of the nation state with transnational corporations and organizations, and eroding local cultures and traditions through a global culture (Kellner, 1989). Hazel Gachoka Gachunga is a lecturer in human resource management in the School of Human Resource Development at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. 1 36 The emergent global economy and culture can be described as a ‘network society’ which is grounded in new communications and information technologyRead MoreColonial Rule Of Independence And Independence10047 Words   |  41 Pagesbranches of government charged with making public policy. Capturing the role of the U.S. Supreme Court, Dahl (1957) states: To consider the Supreme Court of the United States strictly as a legal institution is to underestimate its significance in the American political system. For it is a political institution . . . . for arriving at decisions on controversial questions of national policy (p. 279). As heirs to the British common law legal tradition, courts in other former colonies have a comparable roleRead MoreErp Implementation in Oil Industry8113 Words   |  33 Pagesfirm may have changed [11]. Nicolaou [20] reports that ERP implementation success often results from a number of factors, such as user participation and involvement in software development, the assessment of business needs, the processes during the analysis phase of the project and the level of data integration designed into the systems. ERP changes these processes, from designing a custom system to accommodate the existing business processes of a firm to selecting a business application system that

Gender Inequality In The Police - 1751 Words

Gender is assumed to be associated with our private parts, whether you’re a man or a woman is determined by your biological part at birth. However, this is not the case, gender is a fundamental social institution because it is reflected in everything we do. Our gender is determined by the way we interact in social settings. The roles you play in life and the way you interact with people shows your gender. This is known as accountability, you need to have the characteristics of the group you associate with. In this paper, I will be looking at gender inequality in the police. I will touch on the existing gender stereotypes that have led to the existing inequality in policing, how these stereotypes have led to the term ‘doing gender’ and how†¦show more content†¦This stereotype of female officers has been around for a long time and it builds upon a cultural tradition that women are inferior. (REF.) women in policing are seen as not conforming with their gend er, that is, they’re ‘doing gender’. â€Å"Doing gender refers to the idea of gender not being a trait or quality of an individual, but rather the product of daily social practices and behaviors that emphasize femininity and masculinity†. (REF.) So, behaving or thinking in a way that is feminine if you are female and masculine if you are male. â€Å"By focusing on the construction of gender, this approach makes visible how women ‘might be inadvertently participating in [their] own silencing in interactions with men’ (Smith, 2009: 76) and provides a way of thinking about how gendered nature of institutions can be changed—through agency and interaction†. There is one major critic to this approach though, it is given the term ‘doing difference’. Doing gender as we have discussed means embracing gender identities, so men and women can choose to embrace whichever gender they wish to associate with but according to Messers chmitt in his reply to Miller, he says people cannot embrace identities of the opposite sex they can only behave in ways that are associated with the opposite sex. For example, gang girls, these girls can be seen as embracing masculine traits but Messerschmitt refers to them as bad girls andShow MoreRelatedGender Inequality Of The Workplace1255 Words   |  6 Pages Fact or Fiction: Gender Inequality in the Workplace Will respect resolve the gender inequality issue in the workplace? While there s always going to be a person who craves more money because greed is a major factor in why respect is in decline in the workplace. Gender inequality is prevalent in the workplace, but we can bridge the gap if more people had respect for their counterparts. Enforcing this amongst employees will cut down on discrimination lawsuit cases and these companies can growRead MoreCrime and Social Inequality1194 Words   |  5 Pages Crime and criminalization are dependent on social inequality Social inequality there are four major forms of inequality, class gender race and age, all of which influence crime. In looking at social classes and relationship to crime, studies have shown that citizens of the lower class are more likely to commit crimes of property and violence than upper-class citizens: who generally commit political and economic crimes. In 2007 the National Crime Victimization Survey showed that familie s with anRead MoreGender Inequality For Women Working1209 Words   |  5 Pages Women Inequality: Gender Inequality for Women Working in the US Labor Force. By Karla Hernandez English II Mrs. Desai 6 May 2016 Karla Hernandez Mrs. Desai English II 6 May 2016 Women Inequality: The Gender Inequality for Women Working in the US Labor Force. According to the International Trade Union Confederation ever since 1979 the equality gap in pay had gone up, in 2010 women now earned 81% of what male employees earned. That later changed the wage gap opened, woman pay dropped byRead MoreSocialization And Social Control Of Adolescents1130 Words   |  5 PagesClass, race, and gender play a significant role in organizing society as a whole, and they are all forms of stratification that promote group inequalities in society due to an unequal distribution of social resources and opportunities. These groups are socially defined and treated differently and unequally in the larger society. Now, our goal is to analyze these groups based on their manifestation in socialization and social control of adolescents. First, we will define socialization and socialRead MoreGender Inequality : A Man Who Works Full Time1630 Words   |  7 PagesGender inequality is something that has been affecting our world for a very long time. You can see it all throughout history. From women entering the workforce for the first time, to women protesting on the street, fighting for the right to vote. The concept people don t understand is that this is still affecting our world today. Did you know that a man who works full time earns a median of $889 a week? Do you know how much a woman makes? A woman who works full-time earns a median of $721 a weekRead MoreInequalities Has Been Around For Many Years; From Slaves,1018 Words   |  5 PagesInequalities has been around for many years; from slaves, to the inequalities of women. Throughout the decades, women have been fighting the injustices they face in the workplace, household, and other places. The feminist movement was able to transform the role of the traditional woman. Woman were just thought as stay at home mom, who would just take care of their kids, cook, and clean. Once the feminist movement started to gain momentum and cause woman to believe they could be a mother and alsoRead MoreGender And Sexuality : The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo854 Words   |  4 PagesGender and sexuality, words that can put many different pictures in our head. One of the most common pictures we all develop is probably the sexual activity done by two opposite genders. These words do not always mean how they sound. Gender plays a big role in today’s society where men are thought to be more powerful than women physically, mentally, and emotionally. Sexuality in other words, can be described differently by many different people, where many consider it as big part of every adult’sRead MoreGender And Class Effect On Society976 Wo rds   |  4 PagesThroughout my life, I have learned many things when it comes to gender and class. When I was young, my mother and my stepfather owned their own fencing company and brought in good money for my stepbrother and I. Things felt easy, we had a roof over our head, and the fridge always had food in it. Little did I know that during that time, the economy was not at its best and it was quickly getting worse as the days rolled on. People lost their homes and their businesses went from being good moneymakersRead MoreWar And Peace, By Nancy Scheper Hughes And Philippe846 Words   |  4 Pagesexpressions and repressions of violence are sometimes so deeply embedded in broader socio-cultural structures that they go unrecognized. According to Scheper-Hughes and Bourgois, these misrecognized and often invisible forms of violence-- racism, inequality and exclusion--are often not â€Å"disapproved of† nor seen as â€Å"deviant† behavior but, are â€Å"generally app lauded conventional social, economic and political norms† (5). From these larger social, cultural, and political systems, violence derives its powerRead MoreWe Can Not Deny Society s Progression Of Social Equality Essay1187 Words   |  5 PagesWe cannot deny society’s progression of social equality, however, it is imperative that we not only understand the inequalities that are presently riddled in our social framework, but also understand how inequalities effect people at both micro and macro levels and how they intersect. Acquiring some base knowledge of institutionalized inequalities is fundamental to any attempts in rectifying (or easing) social injustices. Using Patricia Hill Collins’ Intersectionality theory, along with Omi and Winants’

Advertising Campaign - Free Sample Solution

Questions: 1. Define the objectives of your advertising campaign.2.Outline how you will prepare the advertising budget.3.Explain How you will Develop a Schedule.4.Create two different advertisements for the new product. Evaluate your two advertisements. Which one suits your needs better? Why? Answers: 1. Specific In the framework of the existing study, Ahn and Lim (2012) asserted that the management of Bubs operating in the Australian market needs to conduct a lucrative design of the campaign that can lead the brand to attain its goal of the time-specific period. The management of the enterprise is planning to increase its revenue margin by 5% over the next eight months. Through the advertising campaign, Bubs is planning to tap on the majority of the parents expected mothers. According to James (2006), mothers that have been already purchasing the infant baby products have already generated loyalty towards the products of the existing enterprise. Hence, the Bubs is planning to tap on the pregnant women and generate a fresh base of the customers. Within the tenure of next five months, the brand is planning to expand its product reach amongst within the retailer shops to attain its depicted target. Measurable In the opinion of Kng (2008), an inference can be drawn that the objectives for the campaign require being measurable by the pre-agreed upon the standards. Therefore, the marketing unit of the specific organisation is planning to enhance the reach of its new products with a speculated time period. Within the tenure of the next eight months, the brand is planning to increase 5% of its revenue margin. Therefore, the expected margin can be attainable only when the distributors and the number of the wholesalers would be increased. Achievable The brand has taken several marketing initiatives to spread the product awareness amongst the women that are expecting babies within the next eight months. In the circumstance of the current subject, Nuttall et al. (2016) asserted that the design of the overall campaign requires being loud and catchy to grab the attention of the primary target customers. Since, the brand is planning to expand its distributors and the also formulating the strategies of penetrating into the territories that are already captured by the competitors. Thus, prior launching the product, the brand needs to create a buzz in the market, which would increase the excitement amongst the target customers. Masters et al. (2015) specified that before the conduction of the advertising campaign, the Bubs require initiating a test marketing approach before the target audience. Based on the feedbacks of the target audience Bubs can plan on the advertisement campaign of Yum Hum. Realistic Bubs is a well-established brand in the Australian market. As per the statement of Ellis (2010), the enterprise has already developed its loyal base of audience, which signifies the fact that the resource strength of the enterprise is comparatively stronger. Therefore, the brand has already managed to distribute its older products both the online and offline marketing channels. The success margin of its previous products has already provided a thorough knowledge of the brand regarding the methods that can easily push the new product in the market and help the enterprise to increase its revenue margin by 5% within the tenure of the next eight months. Time Bound The marketing measures like the traditional advertising platforms, PR (Public Relationship) portfolio, radio jingle, logo design and endorsement of the child specialist would be sufficient for the products to attain a success within the speculated time frame. Ferrell and Hartline (2010) determined that the brand is planning to increase its revenue margin by 5% over the period of next eight months, through the support of the new baby food products. The majority of the marketing actions are conducted under the ATL (Above The Line) platforms. Therefore, the chances of attaining the revenue margin with the speculated time frame. 2. Firstly, the design of the brand logo would be done. In the similar context, Kishore Kumar and Anand (2013) mentioned that the logo design is an essential part of the brand. It is highly significant for of the brands to design the logo that helps make a brand recall over the target customers. Therefore, the logo design tends to enact as the significance aspects in serving the above purpose. In the Australian market, a fresh logo design costs between the ranges of AU$ 600 to 1000 (Stokes et al. 2011). The design of the logo within the range of AU$ 600 is highly simple and generic. However, Bubs is planning to leave a significant impact in the Australian market with the new Yum Hum product. Therefore, formulating the logo with a premium theme and with the standardised colour combination aspects might cost the brand with the total budget of AU$ 900. Secondly, a considerable figure would be invested in the radio jingle (Ridout, 2009). For the specific purpose, the brand requires investing a total budget of AU$ 6000. In the initial period, the jingle requires being created by the jingle producers. Moreover, an audio message needs to be recorder by a voice modulator. For the above purpose, the brand requires investing a total amount of AU$ 3000 (Fraze et al. 2007). The management has planned to ring the jingle on two popular radio stations for two consecutive weeks, and later the frequency of the ad would be reduced and continued for the tenure of 2 months. For the above effort, Bubs require investing a figure of AU$ 3000. Therefore, the total budget for the radio jingle would be AU$ 6,000. Thirdly, the PR measures can be taken to market the campaign through the digital platforms. Moreover, the conduction of the campaign is planned to be done through the ATL channels. In the framework of the specific subject, Shim et al. (2011) asserted that the PR content would be developed in different channels like the traditional marketing channels and the online platforms. Therefore, for the particular action, the total investment would round up to the figure of AU$ 3,000. The professional content design can create a buzz amongst the target customers. Furthermore, besides the physicians prescription, the mothers also get inclined towards the verbal communication of the other prospects (Shah and DSouza, 2008). Therefore, a professional content development in the majority of the marketing platforms can push the new products into the viral promotion. Finally, the marketing manager of Bubs has planned to initiate a physician endorsement. Since, the mothers present a typical attitude towards the food products of the children; therefore, the involvement of the child specialist into the ad campaign would be highly beneficial. In the Australian market, the physician endorsement cost between the average range of AU$ 10,000 to 50,000. Therefore, the marketing unit has planned to involve the physician only for 10 seconds in the commercialised ad. For the specific involvement, Bubs would invest a budget of AU$ 35,000. Hence, the total budget for the advertisement campaign would be AU$ 44, 900 Campaign components Budget Logo design AU$ 900 Radio jingle AU$ 6,000 PR (Public Relationship) portfolio AU$ 3,000 Endorsement AU $35, 000 Total budget AU$44, 900 Table 1: Advertising budget (Source: Self-developed) 3. Commercial advertisements: The mothers that have infants stay back home for the first six months. According to Struthers and Wang (2016), the mothersbasically prefers to spend the leisure time by watching the daily soaps. Therefore, it would be a wise effort to display the ad in the commercialised channels. The ads would be placed for the 20 seconds in the channels. The ads would be displayed in the afternoon and the evening viewing hours. In the afternoon time, the mothers have the tendency of watching television for maximum two consecutive hours. Thus, the timing would be from 1 pm 3 pm. The evening time the t6arget audience prefer spending the maximum time in the commercialised channels, thus, at least the ad would be displayed for 4 hours. The display time would be between 7 pm 11 pm. Radio jingle: The radio jingle is designed specifically for both the mothers and fathers. The mothers' tuning time into the radio is highly freckle (Ferrell and Hartline, 2010). Therefore, it would be a complex action for the marketing unit of Bubs to place the jingle by figuring out the time when the mothers turn on the radio stations. According to Fraze et al. (2007), the Nova 919 and Hot Country FM 89.3 are the best-rated radio stations in Australia. Therefore, the marketing manager of the specific brand has planned to promote the jingle in the particular stations. Since figuring out the radio turning times of the mothers is difficult. Therefore, Bubs would be targeting on the fathers. The jingle would be tuned during the evening time when the business people return the home. The survey conducted by the previous researchers reflects that the majority of the business class prefer to listen to the radio stations while returning from office. Therefore, the jingle would be a 30 second s composition, which would be tuned between 7 pm 9 pm. Digital platforms: The PR content would be developed after every two weeks intervals. The social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter would be the primary choice for the display of the ad campaign. The traffic of Facebook is greater than Twitter, therefore, initially the ad in the specific platform would be displayed after two consecutive days. After which the tenure would increase to 4 days and then twice in a week. In the Twitter, the marketing unit would be persistent in twitting the ad for once in a week. Moreover, the e-commerce sites that already make the B2C (Business to Customer) transaction would be approached by the brand to display the pop-up ads. 4. The advertisements are designed influentially to attract the target groups. As per the opinion of Postellon (2008), it is crucial to make a campaign more compelling, for which a proper identification of the target group is necessary. This step helps any organisation to achieve a systematic approach of penetration. There is a need to inform the target groups about the product. So a tricky advertisement has to be prepared to influence the audiences (Masters et al. 2015). To create an impact on the company two themes of advertisement are made. The first publication includes a female model who is promoting the product, where the uses are mentioned so that the utility can be inferred. In the second case, the advertisement shows that a mother is visiting a doctor's clinic to get information about a suitable food product for the baby. The doctor suggests the mother to use the Yum Hum regularly, which helps the baby to grow healthily. The contact numbers would also be included for a furth er gathering of information. After a careful evaluation of the two advertisements, it is inferred that the second one is much better than the first one. The reason behind this rationale is that in the second case, the mother is visiting a doctor's place which shows a systematic and clinical approach. The audiences would easily get fascinated by the suggestive nature of the advertisement by the physician. The parents found the product more authentic and safe for the kids. Modernisation has made the audiences smarter, enough to make a sharp judgement about the product as soon as the add comes into view. So conservative measures have to be undertaken so as to push the audiences to make an instant buying decision. According to the opinion of Zhang and Gao (2009), nowadays the focus is more concentrated on the value and quality, which is empowered by the doctor's statement in this case. Market penetration is viable with an advertisement, which would have a positive, informative and reasoned impact on the target audie nces (Shah and Dsouza, 2008). Furthermore, the campaign also includes a clear call-to-action i.e. "call us facility". Including a doctor in promotional activity attaches the relevancy, which is associated with an authority aspect. In addition to this, the reports are also evident that 61% of people would prefer to choose baby products that include doctors in the ad campaign. The discussions, which took place between the physician and the mother in the advertisement puts an emotional impact on the audiences. Additionally, the add also relates the target groups to the real circumstances that somehow fabricate a sense of relief to the parents. Reference: Ahn, S. and Lim, Y. (2012) Design of commercial ads dissemination system in vehicular environments, IETE Technical Review, 29(3), p. 248. Ellis, N. (2010)Business-to-business marketing: Relationships, networks and strategies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ferrell, O.C. and Hartline, M.D. (2010)Marketing management strategies. 5th edn. Boston, MA, United States: South-Western, Cengage Learning. Fraze, J.L., Rivera-Trudeau, M. and McElroy, L. (2007) Applying behavioral theories to a social marketing campaign,Social Marketing Quarterly, 13(1), pp. 214. James, T. (2006) Baby steps to a profitable [baby feeding products], Manufacturing Engineer, 85(4), pp. 1419. Kishore Kumar, P. and Anand, B. (2013) Green marketing: Theory, practice, and strategies,Indian Journal of Marketing, 43(1), p. 54. Kng, L. (2008) The Internet and the mass media. Edited by Lucy Kung, Robert G. Picard, and Ruth Towse. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Masters, K., Gibbs, T. and Sandars, J. (2015) How to make an effective e-poster, MedEdPublish, . Nuttall, A., Kochenderfer, M. and Close, S. (2016) Detection of hypervelocity impact radio-frequency pulses through prior constrained source separation, Radio Science, . Postellon, D.C. (2008) Baby care products, PEDIATRICS, 121(6), pp. 12921292. Ridout, T.N. (2009) Campaign Microtargeting and the relevance of the televised political ad, The Forum, 7(2). Shah, K. and DSouza, A. (2008) Advertisement and promotions an IMC perspective 1st edition. New Delhi: India Higher Education. Shim, J.K., Siegel, J.G. and Shim, A.I. (2011) Budgeting basics and beyond (Wiley corporate FA). 4th edn. United States: Wiley, John Sons. Stokes, R., Quirk, the M. of, Blake, S. and Education, Q. (2011)Emarketing: The essential guide to digital marketing (4th edition). 4th edn. South Africa: Quirk eMarketing. Struthers, A. and Wang, M. (2016) Buzz agents in a teen-driven social marketing campaign: Positive campaign attitude leads to positive changes in health outcomes,Social Marketing Quarterly, 22(3), pp. 218235. Zhang, X. and Gao, X. (2009) An analysis of conceptual metaphor in western commercial advertisements, Asian Social Science, 5(12).

Yevtushenkos Babi Yar Essays (931 words) - The Holocaust In Ukraine

Yevtushenko's Babi Yar Babi Yar, a poem written by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, tells the story of the Nazi invasion into a small part of Russia, in which, throughout the duration of World War II, over one-hundred thousand Jews, Gypsies and Russian POW's were brutally murdered. However, what is unique about this particular perspective is that the narrator is not a Jew, but a mere observer who is aghast at the atrocities that took place during the Holocaust. It is through allusions, as well as other literary devices, that Yevtushenko elucidates caustically the absurdities of the hatred that caused the Holocaust, in addition to the narrator's identification with the Jews and their history of oppression. Perhaps, the most effective literary device used in "Babi Yar" is the allusion. The first clear allusion seen in the poem is the one concerning Egypt(line 6). This reference harks back to the Jews' enslavement in Egypt before they become a nation. In line 7, the narrator makes reference to how so many Jews perished on the cross. The reason for these initial allusions in the first section is clear. Yevtushenko is establishing the history of the Jewish people, being one of oppression, prejudice, and innocent victims. The next illusion in the poem is a reference to the Dreyfus Affair, a more modern display of irrational and avid anti-Semitism. It is in the Dreyfus affair that an innocent man is accused of espionage and is sent to jail for more than ten years, notwithstanding an overwhelming amount of evidence pointing to his innocence, simply because he is a Jew. Yevtushenko uses these allusions to lead up to his referral to a boy in Bielostok who is murdered by the Russian common-folk. Clearly, The narrator is teaching a lesson with a dual message. Firstly, he is informing the reader of the horrors that took place in Russia during the Holocaust. Perhaps even more of a travesty, however, is the fact that humankind has not learned from the past in light of the fact that this "episode" is merely one link in a long chain of terrors. Yevtushenko goes on to allude to Anne Frank, a young Jewish teenager who left behind a diary of her thoughts and dreams, and how the Nazis strip her of any potential future she has when she is murdered in the death camps. Clearly, the allusion creates images in the mind of the reader that mere descriptions via the use of words could not. Another effective literary device used in the poem is the first person narrative in which the narrator identifies with those victims which he describes. This is seen in the case where the narrator says "I am Dreyfus", or "Anne Frank, I am she." The narrator does not claim to understand what the feelings and thoughts of these people are, but rather, he is acknowledging the fact that they are feeling, "detested and denounced" and that unlike the rest of the world who turned its head, or the Russians who actually abetted such heinous crimes, this gentile narrator can not empathize, but does sympathize with his Jewish "brethren." Another extremely powerful device used by Yevtushenko is the detail of description and imagery used to describe events and feelings that are in both those whom he identifies with, as well as himself. "I bear the red mark of nails"(line 8) seems to include much of the suffering that the Jews have to endure. The statement is almost one of a reverse crucifixion in which the Jews are crucified and now have to suffer with false accusations, blood libels, and Pogroms for the duration of time. The poet describes very clearly the contempt most people have for the Jewish people and how many of these people aided in the barbarity . In line 13, for example, the poet speaks of "shrieking ladies in fine ruffled gowns" who "brandish their umbrellas in my face." In addition, Yevtushenko also depicts explicitly how the "tavern masters celebrate" at the sight of "(a Jewish boy's)blood spurt and spread over the floor." The contrast of age in "Babi Yar" is also quite effective. In the last three sections, the reader finds out that the narrator is remembering the past, mourning those who have perished.

Hernando Cortez - Spanish Conquistador

Hernando Cortez - Spanish Conquistador Hernando Cortez was born in 1485 into a poor noble family and was educated at the University of Salamanca. He was an able and ambitious student that focused on a military career. With the stories of Christopher Columbus and the land across the Atlantic Ocean he became enamored with the idea of traveling to the territories of Spain in the new world. Cortez spent the next few years working as a minor legal official in Hispaniola before joining Diego Velazquezs expedition to conquer Cuba. Conquering Cuba In 1511 Velazquez’s conquered Cuba and was made governor of the island. Hernando Cortez was a capable officer and distinguished himself during the campaign. His efforts placed him in a favorable position with Velazquez and the governor made him clerk of the treasury. Cortez continued to distinguish himself and became a secretary to Governor Velazquez. During the next few years, he also became a capable administrator in his own right with responsibility for the second largest settlement on the island, the garrison town of Santiago. Expedition to Mexico In 1518, Governor Velazquez decided to give Hernando the coveted position of commander of the third expedition to Mexico. His charter gave him the authority to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for later colonization. However, the relationship between Cortez and Velazquez had chilled over a preceding couple of years. This was the result of the very common jealousy that existed between conquistadors in the new world. As ambitious men, they were continually jockeying for position and were concerned with anyone becoming a potential rival. Despite marrying the sister-in-law of Governor Velazquez, Catalina Juarez the tension still existed. Interestingly, right before Cortez set sail his charter was revoked by Governor Velazquez. Cortez ignored the communication and left on the expedition anyway. Hernando Cortez used his skills as a diplomat to gain native allies and his military leadership to secure a foothold at Veracruz. He made this new town his base of operations. In a severe tactic to motivate his men, he burned the ships making it impossible for them to return to Hispaniola or Cuba. Cortez continued to use a combination of force and diplomacy to work his way toward the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. In 1519, Hernando Cortez entered the capital city with a mixed force of disgruntled Aztecs and his own men for a meeting with Montezuma II the emperor of the Aztecs. He was received as a guest of the emperor. However, the possible reasons for being received as guest vary wildly. Some have reported that Montezuma II allowed him into the capital to study his weakness with an eye to crushing the Spaniards later. While other reasons given relate to the Aztecs viewing Montezuma as an incarnation of their god Quetzalcoatl. Hernando Cortez, despite entering the city as a guest feared a trap and took Montezuma prisoner and began to rule the kingdom through him. Meanwhile, Governor Velazquez sent another expedition to bring Hernando Cortes back under control. This forced Cortez to leave the capital to defeat this new threat. He was able to defeat the larger Spanish force and force the surviving soldiers to join his cause. While away the Aztec’s rebelled and forced Cortez to recapture the city. Cortez with the use of a bloody campaign and a siege lasting eight months was able to retake the capital. He renamed the capital to Mexico City and installed himself absolute ruler of the new province. Hernando Cortez had become a very powerful man in the new world. News of his accomplishments and power has reached Charles V of Spain. The intrigues of the court began to work against Cortez and Charles V was convinced that his valued conquistador in Mexico might set up his own kingdom. Despite repeated assurances from Cortez, he was eventually forced to return to Spain and plead his case and ensure his loyalty. Hernando Cortez traveled with a valuable horde of treasure as gifts for the king to demonstrate his loyalty. Charles V was suitably impressed and decided that Cortez was indeed a loyal subject. Cortez was not awarded the valuable position of Governor of Mexico. He was actually given lower titles and land in the new world. Cortez returned to his estates outside Mexico City in 1530. Final Years of Hernando Cortez The next years of his life were spent quarreling over rights to explore new lands for the crown and legal troubles related to debts and abuses of power. He spent a significant portion of his own money to finance these expeditions. He explored the Baja peninsula of California and afterward made a second trip to Spain. By this time he had fallen out of favor in Spain again and could barely even gain an audience with the king of Spain. His legal troubles continued to plague him, and he died in Spain in 1547.

The Millikan Oil Drop Chemistry Experiment

The Millikan Oil Drop Chemistry Experiment Robert Millikans oil drop experiment measured the charge of the electron. The experiment was performed by spraying a mist of oil droplets into a chamber above the metal plates. The choice of oil was important because most oils would evaporate under the heat of the light source, causing the drop to change mass throughout the experiment. Oil for vacuum applications was a good choice because it had a very low vapor pressure. Oil droplets could become electrically charged through friction as they were sprayed through the nozzle or they could be charged by exposing them to ionizing radiation. Charged droplets would enter the space between the parallel plates. Controlling the electric potential across the plates would cause the droplets to rise or fall. Calculations for the Experiment Fd 6Ï€rÃŽ ·v1 where r is the drop radius, ÃŽ · is the viscosity of air and v1 is the terminal velocity of the drop. The weight W of the oil drop is the volume V multiplied by the density Ï  and the acceleration due to gravity g. The apparent weight of the drop in air is the true weight minus the upthrust (equal to the weight of air displaced by the oil drop). If the drop is assumed to be perfectly spherical then the apparent weight can be calculated: W 4/3 Ï€r3g (Ï  - Ï air) The drop is not accelerating at terminal velocity so the total force acting on it must be zero such that F W. Under this condition: r2 9ÃŽ ·v1 / 2g(Ï  - Ï air) r is calculated so W can be solved. When the voltage is turned on the electric force on the drop is: FE qE where q is the charge on the oil drop and E is the electric potential across the plates. For parallel plates: E V/d where V is the voltage and d is the distance between the plates. The charge on the drop is determined by increasing the voltage slightly so that the oil drop rises with velocity v2: qE - W 6Ï€rÃŽ ·v2 qE - W Wv2/v1

The five forces analysis for Morrisons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The five forces analysis for Morrisons - Essay Example This research will begin with the description of bargaining power of buyers. Buyers have fairly strong bargaining power because they have a vast range of choices.   Prices are highly competitive so buyers can easily switch to other brands without any loss. The cost of switching is particularly low for products that are standardized and offer little differentiating features. Around 94% of the customers have a choice of at least three supermarkets at their disposal within a time frame of 15 minutes. Suppliers in this sector have fairly weak bargaining power due to strong brand presence of supermarkets. Suppliers fear the risk of losing their contracts with the large supermarkets, including Morrisons. Therefore, it is an easy task for such retailers to lock in suppliers at low costs. Furthermore, the industry is fragmented and retailers find themselves doing the role of middlemen and manage to rack up huge profits. Stores in convenience market may be substitutes; however, ever since t he retail stores have diversified into the convenience sector this threat is decreasing. There has been growing protest towards the use of hormonal or genetically modified products over the last few years. It is estimated that the market for organic foods in U.K is worth  £2 billion and is expected to grow in coming years. Hence, convenience stores as well as shops selling organic food may be potential substitutes but this risk is mitigated when large supermarkets buy these out. Morrisons, however, does not have any plan in expanding into this sector. Food experts such as butchers may also be substitutes; however, due to the ease of shopping and greater variety of grocery sector, this threat too is diminishing (Don Edwards & Associates Ltd., 2007). Overall, the threat of substitutes is fairly large for non-food offerings and fairly low for food offerings. 4. Competitive Rivalry Competition remains intense with the top 3 players including Asda, Tesco and Sainsbury’s. Me-too strategies have been widely adopted, such as that of Asda’s low price range strategy ( (Don Edwards & Associates Ltd., 2007). There is evidence of price wars between the top 4 players. Rivalry in the U.K supermarkets industry remains high although the industry itself is not growing. The U.K supermarkets industry is at the maturity stage of its lifecycle, growing at a rate far less than that of GDP and aggregate spending (Lancaster & Massingham, 2011). Fixed costs of this industry are high which can be potential barriers to entry of new firms (Lancaster & Massingham, 2011). Barriers to entry are potentially high with small retailers unable to compete. , unlike its three larger rivals Tesco, Asda and Sainsbury's, Morrison’s does not have an internet home shopping business (Zentes et al., 2007). This could put the company on the backburner as e-commerce is an ever-growing business as it gives greater convenience to customers along with a potential to tap international mar kets. Also it does not have a loyalty card scheme such as Club card which Tesco has uses to track consumer trends and offer lapsing customers discounts (Thompson & Martin, 2010). Loyalty cards keep the regular customers coming back in that they use it to trace customer’s demographic profile which can go a long way in targeting the right products in advertising. Furthermore, by offering discounts the company has the opportunity to induce repeat purchases from its customers. Furthermore, unlike Tesco, Asda and Sainsbury's, Morrison’s does not have a meaningful non-food offer (Thompson & Martin, 2010) . The company does not have enough diversification at present. Greater variety of products (non-food

Assessments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Assessments - Essay Example Science is a vast field, as it includes different experimental aspects of study area. Designed assessments of science subjects contribute to measure the growth and understanding of the subject. Assessments enhance students' learning and help teachers identify what students know and what they can do with their knowledge (IMS.Ode, 2011). This paper aims to design an assessment program for science students, which will include processes and instruments integral for students' learning. The designed assessment will be applicable for students of grade 6 for their science subject. Before designing an assessment program for students it is consider highly important to identify specific requirements of efficient activities that help insight students' knowledge of the subject (Allen, 2006). Likewise, at first place this assessment program will focus on reducing stress from both teachers and students and before practicing planned assessments, all assessment processes, practices and instruments wi ll be checked to note down their validity, reliability, and transparency (Pianta, 2012). Undoubtedly, paper pencil examination method is a traditional one and it is successful too, but it cannot completely evaluate students’ understanding and knowledge of the subject (Wang, 2011). Since, science is a vast subject and it is compulsory to design such an assessment that could ensure achievement of subject value, practice, research and communication outcomes. Thus, this assessment will include different activities and tasks to target each of these aforementioned goals in terms of learning outcomes. For learning and gaining expertise in any particular subject it is always important to develop interest in the subject. In the beginning of the session science teacher will ask students to write an informal essay on the topic, â€Å"Reasons for Selecting Science as a Major Subject in the Future†. This technique will help students use their imaginative and thinking power, because while writing essay they will get chance to recognize importance of scientific studies and scope of the subject in the professional career (Haines, 2004). Additionally, teachers will also get an idea about each student’s interest and dedication for the subject. This will also help teacher to design final assessment activities more effectively with respect to students’ interest and choices (Haines, 2004). Moreover, in the same class after finishing written essay students will be encouraged to come forward and read out summary of their respective essays. With this approach, it could be predicted that some students might hesitate to come forward and present in front of the entire class, but it will be teacher’s responsibility to provide equal opportunity to each student within available time and appreciated them for their future planning (Tobey, 2005). It will help develop and improve communication and presentation skills of the students. Subject teacher is going to monitor all students throughout the terms, and for this purpose, it could be suggested that after explaining a topic one or two times. Class discussion of that particular topic should be conducted to assess what students have understood from the teacher’s lectures and how well they are able to interpret their understanding about the topic (Race, 2005). As this assessment process targets science subject students, therefore teacher will be more emphasizing on examples, from routine life. Furthermore, for homework students will be given an interesting activity such as, they will have to paste or draw pictures relevant to the topic studied in the class. Although, it seems primary level activity, but it is most appropriate way of developing students’ interest in the subject and engage them in activities related to the subject (Race, 2005).

CNS Breathe Right Essay Example for Free

CNS Breathe Right Essay Company Profile CNS was originally formed by Dr. Daniel Cohen and Dr. Frederick Strobl as a medical equipment company in 1982. Strobl and Cohen were neurology residents at the University of Minnesota hospitals. Strobl was also an electrical engineer. The original intent of the company was to revolutionize brain activity monitoring by inventing and marketing a personal computer equipped with a circuit board that could analyze brain waves in real time during operations. After five years of increased technological advances but a steady decline in sales, the company hired Fred Brooks as president. In 1990, the company finally recorded profits in 1990 for the first time by marketing their brain monitoring equipment to sleep clinics. In 1991, Cohen met with Bruce Johnson, who wanted to scientifically advance some ideas he had for a nasal dilating system. After many attempts to dilate his own nasal passages internally, he came up with the idea to dilate them externally. Johnson then spent the next three years working on a spring loaded strip that would lift his nostrils and keep them dilated. CNS then acquired the rights to market and sell this product in 1992, and Cohen reassumed the position of president. In 1993, CNS hired Richard E. Jahnke as their new president. Because of a lengthy FDA approval process, it took a while before the Breathe Right strips could be sold to distributors. Because of this and because of continued losses in the sleep disorder market, CNS reported more losses in 1993. In 1994, however, things started to change. CNS was allowed shelf space in Eckerds, Walgreens, and Snyders. This, along with two endorsements from Herschel Walker and Jerry Rice, two prominent NFL athletes who swore by the use of the strip at the time, the sales of Breathe Right doubled in the fourth quarter of 1994. The company enjoyed continued success through  marketing the strips as a use for athletic enhancement, a cure for snoring, a sleep aid, and a drug free way of degongestion. Financial and Non-Financial Goals The original non-financial goal of CNS was to produce efficient and useful technology to monitor brain activity that neurologists could use to effectively receive and translate data from electrical signals in the patient’s brain in real time during an operation. After this attempt at innovation failed to be profitable, the company acquired the marketing rights to the nasal strips invented by Bruce Johnson, and the company’s primary goal was the marketing and sales of the â€Å"Breathe Right† nasal strip. Sources http://www.answers.com/topic/cns-inc http://www.answers.com/topic/cns-inc#ixzz2HFZZmk2c http://www.calmu.edu/blog/international-marketing-the-success-of-cns-breathe-right-nasal-strips/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iexvzcmzYB0 http://www.breatheright.com/ http://www.studymode.com/essays/Analysis-Cns-Breathe-Right-Strips-62927.html

The Metamorphosis of Ebenezer Scrooge in A Christmas Carol Essay

A Christmas Carol, a tale that revolves around a man’s fate in the past, the present, and the future. Its story speaks of a man, a man called Ebenezer Scrooge, and the changes in which he goes through. ‘’Oh! But he was tight-fisted man at the grindstone, Scrooge! a squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, covetous old sinner! Hard and sharp as flint, from which no steel had ever struck out generous fire; secret, and self-contained, and solitary as an oyster. The cold within him froze his old features, nipped his pointed nose, shrivelled his cheek, stiffened his gait; made his eyes red, his thin lips blue; and spoke out shrewdly in his grating voice. A frosty rime was on his head, and on his eyebrows, and his wiry chin. He carried his own low temperature always about with him; he iced his office in the dog-days, and didn’t thaw it one degree at Christmas.’’ This description describes Scrooge’s character brilliantly, it is on the second page of the novel and immediately hits you. I feel that Charles Dickens could not have described his character any better. In my opinion the last sentence has great relevance to the story and his attitude towards all things merry, especially Christmas: ‘’†¦his own low temperature†¦and didn’t thaw it one degree at Christmas.’’ Scrooge is a very cold-hearted, spiteful man, he is never cheerful or in any way nice to anyone. The only people who he at the very least endures or respects are men of great importance or wealth, but also his fellow businessmen. It would be easier to get blood out of a stone than to get Ebeneezer Scrooge to be merry; ‘’Hard and sharp as flint, from which no steel had ever struck out generous fire†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Scrooge has no wish to spend his time with anyone o... ... up the resulting change in Scrooge: ‘’He became as good a friend, as good a master, and as good a man as the good old City knew†¦Some people laughed to see the alteration in him, but he let them laugh,’’ So we see that Scrooge was indeed saved from the terrible fate that would have otherwise inevitably destroyed him. And also became a model citizen, who mended the error of his ways, strived for good and became a man with no burdens. Except, the burdens of his loved ones and the less fortunate. Works Cited Dickens, Charles. A Christmas Carol. Classics of Children's Literature. Ed. John W. Griffith and Charles H. Frey. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992.

Managing Air Quality And Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay

API or Air Pollutant Index is the indexs used to specify air quality. Malaysia used API system which follows Pollutant Standard Index ( PSI ) which developed by United States Environmental Protection Agency or US-EPA. Air quality issues are really planetary issue today. The haze phenomena which happened in the twelvemonth 1983, 1984, 1991, 1994 and 1997 has opened our eyes and increased consciousness that air quality issues must be treated earnestly and an effectual plan must be developed in order to supervise, prevent and control air quality. Furthermore, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ( SARS ) late detected in April 2004 besides has addition consciousness on how of import clean and healthy air we needs. Malaya has growing for major transmutation from agricultural to fabricating based state since decennaries ago. Realized on this, the authorities of Malaysia has enacted The Environmental Quality Act ( EQA ) in 1974. By the twelvemonth 1977, authorities has enacted Motor Vehicle ( Control of Smoke and Gas Emissions ) to command black fume which emitted from Diesel vehicles ( Heng 2002 ) . In Malaysia, Department of Environment ( DOE ) is responsible to supervise state air quality via 51 Stationss which located in strategic topographic points either in residential and industrial countries. The increasing Numberss of industrial activities and increasing vehicles contributed significantly to air pollution. Harmonizing to DOE, motor vehicles contributed 82 % to air pollution in Malaysia. How about the vehicles statistics? Statistic by Road Transport section of Malaysia ( until March 2010 ) shows registered autos in Malaysia is 8, 506 080 units, bike with 8,940230 units and public conveyance with 162309 units. This immense Numberss of motor vehicles contribute significantly to air pollution. Therefore, risky impact of air pollution must be monitored, control and prevented as it is about impossible to unclutter it to zero degree but we can work together to cut down the impact and pollution.1.1 The VisionThe vision of the program is to command on nomadic beginnings ( motor vehicles ) and stationary beginnings ( industrial production procedure ) in Malaysia.1.2 Objective of Plan and GoalsAchieving desired air quality degree of control for nomadic beginnings and installations which emits pollutants1.3 Beginnings of Air Pollution in MalaysiaMotor vehicles are the major subscribers to air pollution with 82 % and this is followed by stationary beginnings. The beginnings which categorized in stationary are including industrial installations such as chemical workss, steel Millss, oil refineries and power workss. Generally, stationary contribute emanations about 20 % – 25 % ( DOE cited in Yahya 2006 ) . Attempts are taken by Malayan authorities to advancing sustainable envi ronment where Malaysia has been ranked 38 from 146 states worldwide in environment sustainability.1.4 Developing control schemesThe first measure to develop control schemes is finding precedence pollutants which are air pollutants. In Malaysia, industrial country and busy metropoliss such as Kuala Lumpur are largely affected with pollutants. Among identified countries are Shah Alam ( with 44 recorded unhealthy yearss per 350 yearss ) , Kuala Lumpur ( with 24 recorded unhealthy yearss ) and etc. The following measure is to look into side effects of the schemes selected. However, the development of control schemes must affect multi stakeholders working squad such as the authorities organic structures, private sectors, Non-Government organic structures ( NGO ) and the public engagement.1.5 Control SchemesThere are practical schemes in get the better ofing the issue which are:Air Quality Management schemeThis scheme consists of developing and implementing air quality criterions which co ntains elements of: Optimum control scheme Abatement steps Cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analyses Air quality appraisal Environmental harm appraisal and Abatement options of appraisalEmission control schemeEmission beginnings are determined by instance by instance footing.Fiscal inducement schemeBy this scheme, inducements such as gross revenues revenue enhancement are given for those who are commanding air pollution.Cost benefit schemeThis scheme determines rationally how much harm should accept from air pollution compared to be in cut downing the harm.2.0 Engineering Control ConceptsBy and large, there are four technology constructs that can be applied to command emanation of air pollutants which is: Changing or modifying design of procedure Changing or modifying runing status of the procedure Change of natural stuffs and fuel Installing appropriate pollution remotion devices or system3.0 Long Term PlanUsing the right schemes for long term program are important as the job arising must be identified and analyzed foremost. As illustration, a instance happens of commanding industrial pollution at Sao Paolo, Brazil. They are concentrating at particulate affair emanations which produced by industries. In other manus, dust emanations caused by traffics or Mobiles really were the major jobs and had been overlooked. Therefore, side effects, root causes and beginnings must be identified to choose incorporate and suited attacks.3.1: Emission Tax FeeFor long term Air Quality direction program, Malaysia may larn and implement as what had been implemented in Taiwan. Taiwan has introduced and implementing emanation revenue enhancement fee in 1995 for defilers. The scenario is about same as Malaysia where stationary beginnings and nomadic beginning are the chief subscribers for pollution in Taiwan. Harmonizing to Chung-H sing National University research, 50 % of SO2 emanation has been reduced since 1997 to the twelvemonth 2000. How did they make this? They used TEDS or Taiwan Emission Database as stock lists for this research. This research has shows consequences where pollutants are being connected closely with their emanation distributions. For Malayan, local universities may take portion and contribute to research that may take to high engineering invention in order to bring forth healthy air quality. There a tonss of universities that is capable in carry oning researches in Malaysia such as Universiti Sains Malaysia ( USM ) , Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia ( UKM ) , Universiti Malaya ( UM ) and etc. These stairss in my sentiment are a good measure as the research can be continues for long term besides bring forthing high quality and Numberss of station alumnus pupils in Malaysia.3.2: Government EngagementIn order to accomplish developed state vision and at the same clip stay its environment sustainability, Malaysia must continuously better air quality direction which has begun in 2002. Two old ages subsequently in 2004, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment was formed which consists of 10 environment and natural resources bureaus. Happening of haze phenomena late in Muar, Johor on 19th October 2010 has opened our eyes how serious air quality and the impacts are to us. Schools were advised to shut temporarily by Deputy Prime Minister as countermeasures to forestall the state of affairs from acquiring worse. Therefore, countermeasures such as implementing rigorous Torahs should be done where compound should be implemented to those who are involved in industries which produ ce pollution, unfastened combustion, over limit emanations or fumes from nomadic and etc.3.3: Rigorous Environment Quality RegulationsChart 1: Registered Vehicles in Malaysia ( by twelvemonth ) Mobile beginnings remain as the biggest subscribers of pollutants in term of C monoxide and N oxide emanations. Harmonizing to Road Transport Department, Numberss of vehicles and Mobiles in Malaysia were increasing every twelvemonth as is Chart 1. In 2004, Environment Quality Regulation ( Control of Emission from Motorcycles ) has been gazette. This nevertheless, need to be updated from clip to clip as our state are turning even though universe economic system clime is about to retrieve. Table 3.3 ( a ) as per below shows the statistics of increasing registered Numberss of vehicles in Malaya:Year / Types of Registered vehicles2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Cars 537900 458294 468512 537092 513954 Motorcycles 422255 448751 484598 543122 441545 Public vehicles 9981 9090 7692 9713 8209 Table 3.3 ( a ) : Registered Vehicles in Malaysia as recorded by Road Transport Department ( by Year ) Large Numberss of vehicles besides means big sum of emanation. Therefore, enforcement and reappraisal of air quality ordinance must be done often and accommodate the latest demand. Department of Environment ( DOE ) Malaysia must play major functions in implementing rigorous ordinances. DOE may patterns periodic audit to premises harmonizing to Environment Quality Act 1974. Besides that, other actions that suggested to be performed are fastening new application for licensing ( as subdivision 11 ) .3.4: Public EngagementPublic engagement may guarantee that community and other parties working together in the development procedure. Populaces may involved by describing any unfastened combustion or improper industries activities in their country to the governments bureaus. Malayan may larn from US citizens civilization where persons are responsible and develop their ain program which called State Implementation Plan or SIP which related to air quality issues. Harmonizing to the program, ea ch province must hold ain SIP. Each province in US is required to hold SIP which contains schemes and control steps to get the better of pollution issues.4.0 Mobile Source Control StrategyProposed action on commanding nomadic beginnings is:Plan 4.1 New Vehicles DesignEmission from Mobiles can be controlled by assorted methods. One of the methods is utilizing catalytic convertors. Catalytic convertor was a device introduced by a Gallic mechanical applied scientist whom is Eugene Houdry. The catalytic are functioned to diminish toxic emanations from internal burning engine. Nowadays, autos are equipped with this device which maps to cut down C monoxide, VOCs and NOx emanations. Vehicles are besides can plan to accommodate environment friendly and at the same clip utilizing less polluting fuels. Therefore, less emanation and pollutants are produced.Plan 4.2 Conduct Awareness plan and runUsing media, public run, seminars and uninterrupted plan on may increase consciousness on emanations produced by Mobiles or stationary beginnings. Media plays large influences in our life daily particularly in presenting information. Educating people particularly at school and universities may implement from now on to ‘born ‘ the earlier consciousness. In guaranting the run works efficaciously, internet web can be selected as a medium to present messages such as ‘Green Technology ‘ run in TV3 channel.Plan 4.3 Amendment and presenting consecutive regulations and ordinancesGovernment organic structures such as Road Transport Department ( JPJ ) could play of import map such as carry oning on a regular basis and scheduled vehicles review. Inspection and ca re is a best manner to guarantee emanations are controlled right and efficaciously. In United States, rider autos and trucks are required to run into rigorous pollution criterions before it can be sold to market. Malaysia besides can implement and better this method better particularly for vehicles which has been used for more than 5 old ages. In other words, rigorous pollution criterions are reviewed and implemented on a regular basis. Besides that, higher compound can be introduced to do certain the ordinances are effected efficaciously.Plan 4.4 Introducing and advancing Green Technology Mobiles in MalayaPresents, intercrossed engine and electric autos has been get downing to developed and marketed. Toyota, Honda, Mitsubishi and other elephantine automotive companies are viing with each other to bring forth environment friendly autos. In order to command Mobiles emanations in Malaysia, why non PROTON, PERODUA and MODENAS working together to develop loanblend and electric based engines which involved motorcycles, autos, trucks and MPV ‘s. This measure may guarantee that our hereafters are cleaner where less fumes and emanations are produced. Malaysia still used gasoline based and so far, no loanblend or to the full electric based engines can be found on the route. By taking action today, who knows, possibly all vehicles in the hereafter are 90 % utilizing electric and intercrossed engines. This issue has been raised by Deputy Prime Minister, Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin whom urged Malayan companies to put in developing green and clean engineering for future vehicles. Collaboration with local universities, sellers and makers could recognize this program as Malaysia had more than 690 maker of constituents and 110 of bikes makers.Plan 4.5 Applying technology control constructsLet ‘s take an illustration from India as something we could larn and adapted. In India, 70 % of air pollution is caused by motor vehicles, two shot engines as the major subscriber, use of old autos which is more than 20 old ages and uses of low quality fuel with high S contents ( in Diesel ) . Therefore, the countermeasures taken are bettering fuel quality ; strengthen care and review and decrease of benzine from 3 % to merely 1 % . The constructs of alteration of natural stuffs and fuels are efficaciously solved this issue. In Malaysia, we could see vehicles which are 5 old ages and sometime ages up to 10 old ages are still traveling on the route. This civilization is wholly different in Japan where they will alter to new autos after it achieve five old ages of use. Why non in Malaysia, we strengthen review and care policy for vehicles for every 5 old ages or less? This could guarantee that vehicles on the route are safe and lone bring forth little per centum of emanations.Plan 4.6 Bettering Fuel QualityMost underdeveloped states are working on cut downing contents of S and lead. By bettering fuel quality, it is indirectly presenting Compressed Natural Gas ( CNG ) which free of S and lead. PETRONAS nevertheless has done fuel quality betterment by being the first oil company in Malaysia whom offer ‘SL ‘ service categorization of American Petroleum Institute ( API ) . Now, PETRONAS is perchance the fi rst in the universe which offer engine oil with new API ‘SM ‘ categorization. Therefore, support from authorities and uninterrupted researches are required to better fuels quality from clip to clip. Universities and private sectors should works together in this scheme as engineering can be portion and being improved from clip to clip.5.0 Stationary Beginnings Control StrategyPower works, smelters, cement workss, refineries and other industrial procedures are categorized as stationary beginnings. The factors that must be considered to choose appropriate scheme are: Stationary beginning status Control of efficiency required and Pollutant collected Therefore, suggested program to command stationary beginnings in Malaysia are:Plan: 5.1 Interstates coordination and cooperationNatural gas are widely use in power generating sectors. Due to that, interstate plan can be introduced to command letter papers particularly in identified country with high possible pollution such as industries country and extremely development or building country. Harmonizing to Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management ( 2006 ) , major industries which impacting air quality in Malaysia are: Iron and steel industry Oil and gas industry Petrochemical sectors Pulp and paper Power workss and Waste incineration sector Therefore, attempts are taken to cut down dependence on the use of natural gas since Eight Malaysia Plan and it is expected to cut down to 56 % in the twelvemonth 2010. Government should work hard on this continuously as we could non depend 100 % on natural gas and crude oil beginnings as the costs are acquiring higher for the exploring costs. Systematic informations and constitution of informations centre which portions information between provinces may roll up all information demands, analysis intent and looking for the countermeasures based on instance by instance.Plan: 5.2 Application of Nano-technologyNowadays, we can hear everybody speaking about Nano-technology development. What is meant by Nano-technology? Harmonizing to Merriam-Webster Dictionary ( 1987 ) , it is define as â€Å" an art of pull stringsing stuffs on an atomic or molecule particularly to develop microscopic devices † . Construction stuffs, merchandises such as skate board and etc and place applications merchandise can be produce by this method. As an illustration, air conditioner are developed utilizing this new engineering. For air conditioner, Nano Carbon, Nano Silver and NanoPhotocatalyst are some of the illustrations that have been marketed. Therefore, authorities may give support by cut downing revenue enhancement and monetary values to Malaysians in order to promote them to purchase these types of merchandises.Plan 5.3 Applying control engineeringsStationary beginnings can be control by using technology control concepts every bit mentioned above ( publish 2.0 ) such as use of low Sulfur fuels. As an illustration, TNB power Stationss in Jana Manjung as reported in TV3 is utilizing low Ss and low bitumen coal as its chief beginnings in bring forthing electric power and at the same clip cut down pollution. The works was equipped with waste H2O intervention to handle its wastewater before released into the sea. The works can be the best samples as it meet higher emanation criter ions in ASEAN as it operates to particulate degrees of merely 50 mg/NmA? compared to expected ASEAN degree which is 400 mg/NmA? . Even though the cost is high, this application is seems benefit us and at the same clip control and cut down pollution. The other method is through fuel pricing where cleaner fuels should included in economic inducements. Due to this, cleaner fuels may gazette as control monetary value points in Malaysia. This has been announced on 10th June 2010 by Malayan Prime Minister, Dato ‘ Sri Mohd Najib Bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak on RMK 10 where he stressed that the monetary value of those points are guaranteed will non to increased dramatically.Plan 5.4 Adapting International Standard Organization ( ISO )ISO is a widely known organisation which formed connexion between public sectors and authorities. In order to accomplish desired degree of control, implementing ISO criterions may one of effectual schemes as the criterions are compiled in inside informations. The illustrations of criterions which can be applied are: No. Standard Aims 1. ISO8573-1:2010 Specify pureness of tight air at peculiar point 2. ISO8573 Parts 2 to 9 To prove air tight system for specific contaminations 3. ISO8573-4:2001 Test method for solid atom content 4. ISO8573-6:2003 Test method for gaseous contamination content Modern installations which required by ISO already included effectual attacks which the ends are to accomplish stringent air quality degrees.Plan 5.5 Promoting cleaner productionsThis means, effectual and procedure were running with high efficiency to forestall or cut down pollution of air, H2O and air. By proper direction of production, stuffs, energy and cost can be salvage a batch. Besides that, presenting licence or particular license for extremely pollutant procedures can be done in productions.Plan 5.6 Industrial Zoning PlanningBasically, industries country should turn up far from residential or sensitive countries. Resettlement of bing industries zone besides can be considered but that depends on economical factors. For sensitive country, monitoring can be done by turn uping proper instruments to supervise and command emanations. Resettlement of major beginning of pollution besides can be considered as had been done for cement works in Haiphong, Vietnam. The works has identifi ed by Vietnam Environmental Management Strategy as major subscribers of suspended particulates. As solutions, the authorities of Vietnam has agreed to relocate the works as the best countermeasure.6.0 Factors should considered during development of control schemesConsideration must be taken before developing and implementing control schemes efficaciously. The factors which must be review are:Economic factorsEconomic factors that must be considered are capital, runing cost, life clip of equipments and care. The chief inquiries here will be who will bear the cost? Ideally, the authorities must put for the installations and latest engineering must be updated particularly for high engineering equipments, the operating cost and care occupation to keep it. Therefore, those who are involve and caused pollution should pay or compounded or utilizing the ‘Polluter Pays Principles ‘ . This is besides a manner to bring forth and obtain support. This can be used for environmental intent, care of equipments such as monitoring devices, runing cost and as a fund for implementing schemes. This has been implemented in Taiwan where the financess are used for financing advanced thoughts and besides back uping research sing air quality issues.6.0.2 Environmental factorsAir quality conditions in Malaysia are monitored by Department of Environment ( DOE ) through 51 Stationss. In add-on, 21 different sites utilizing High Volume Sampler were established to mensurate entire suspended particulate, particulate affair PM10 and heavy metal. Therefore, possible industry country such as palm oil workss, steel industries, cements and etc must aimed as precedence country to be monitored. Presents, environment conditions are altering instantly. Why? Haze phenomena are something must be look at. It happens 1000s stat mis from Malaysia and all of a sudden we faced the effects here. In planing effectual control scheme, factor that must be considered includes: Legal demands Contribution of control system as pollutant Ambient air quality conditions Adequate public-service corporations such as H2O scrubbers Malayan Environment Quality Act 1974 is related to bar, sweetening to environment and control of pollution. As the clip maintain traveling on, these statute laws should be review as environment and pollution issues are being wider range now. One the issue is haze which has been faced by Malaysia late. Therefore, control scheme as rigorous statute laws is one of good method which can be applied in Malaysia. In most underdeveloped states, rigorous criterions are set and applied for new imported autos as a manner to cut down bing job of pollution in a metropolis. As DOE is the section whom supervising air quality conditions, they are responsible to turn up the monitoring devices. As to day of the month, strategic locations has been equipped with Continuous Air Quality Monitoring Station as per below image. Photograph 6.0.2a: Continuous Air Quality Monitoring Station ( DOE Photo Library ) Besides that, ambient air quality is monitored by 51 Stationss which located strategically. Therefore, these equipments must be maintained and new 1s should be considered if air quality in that new country ( such as industry or extremely polluted ) detected harmful to human wellness.Engineering factorsBesides environment and economic factor, technology factors besides play of import functions. Engineering factors should be considered in developing schemes. Factors such as gas watercourse characteristic, public presentation features of control system used, contaminant characteristic i.e. toxicity must be identified and analyzed. Therefore, this may assist a batch in developing the right approaches or schemes. Besides that, it is of import to see all technology instruments available. This is because experience has shows that utilizing multiple is most effectual for peculiar air issue. As an illustration, an beforehand analysis of the effectual analysis of a scheme implemented has been done in Chennai, India. Assessment was conducted and sulfur dioxide emanation has emanating in populated country from thermic workss. By engaging adept advisers, scrubbers and mechanical dust aggregators has been chosen as the most effectual pick to work out this issue. As the consequences, sulfur dioxide emanations from thermic works have been reduced to 90 % . From this scenario, we can state that thorough analysis must be conducted before placing and accommodate the best scheme to be adapted. Today, tonss of modern and sophisticated equipments or devices available for the intent of commanding pollution. It can be used as tools for monitoring, commanding, destructing contaminations from exhaust watercourse and to take them before it is emitted to atmosphere. Some of the devices that can be usage are bag houses, particulate scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and mechanical aggregator such as dust cyclone. Therefore, using new engineerings for both of pollution beginnings should be considered in developing control schemes.DecisionsMultiple pick of schemes are seems the better manner in battling Mobile and stationary beginnings of pollution. The selected attacks may non accommodate all instance at one clip. It may depend on the root cause or emanations produced. Due to that, depending on merely one method of attacks or schemes is non a good pattern. The impact of side effects or pro and cons of a scheme being develop must be studied and good plan. Again, coaction with authorities organic structures, private sectors and local universities can be formed for these intents. This is due that to assorted establishments whether authorities or non authorities are responsible to pull off and keeping air quality in Malaysia. In short, cooperation is extremely required for preparation of effectual schemes. Public sectors may affect in assisting authorities implementing control schemes. Therefore, squad work is indispensable in developing and implementing selected schemes. In implementing a scheme whether in get the better ofing Mobile or stationary beginnings, the scheme itself should develop in cooperation with authorities, private sectors, and besides civil society. By this manner, it will advance sense of ownership particularly to guarantee the successful of 1 Malaysia non merely for development of our state, economic but including environment issues. However, those developed schemes must be monitored. This is due to of import of showing clearly the different phases or stages of execution. Therefore, the advancement can be tracked and the scheme can be improved. Media besides could play of import functions in scattering information and consciousness sing air quality plan. This is easier as cyberspace is one of the best options available. This scheme has been implemented in China as their authorization ‘s organic structures describing on pollutants in 42 metropoliss as an consciousness plan get downing from the twelvemonth of 1999.

Prehistory and antiquity Essay

Since the end of the age of sail a ship has been any large buoyant watercraft. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on size and cargo or passenger capacity. Ships are used on lakes, seas, and rivers for a variety of activities, such as the transport of people or goods, fishing, entertainment, public safety, and warfare. Historically, a â€Å"ship† was a vessel with sails rigged in a specific manner. Ships and boats have developed alongside humanity. In armed conflict and in daily life they have become an integral part of modern commercial and military systems. Fishing boats are used by millions of fishermen throughout the world. History The first known vessels date back to the Neolithic Period, about 10,000 years ago, but could not be described as ships. The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat, these sails gave early ships range. By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull.[10] They used woven straps to lash the planks togetherand reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicted a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on shipbuilding. This treatise gives a technical exposition on the techniques of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, and the materials from which they were built. The Swahili people had various extensive trading ports dotting the coast of medieval East Africa and Great Zimbabwe had extensive trading contacts with Central Africa, and likely also imported goods brought to Africa through the Southeast African shore trade of Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania.[21] Before the introduction of the compass, celestial navigation was the main method for navigation at sea. In China, early versions of the magnetic compass were being developed and used in navigation between 1040 and 1117. Renaissance Until the Renaissance, navigational technology remained comparatively primitive. This absence of technology did not prevent some civilizations from becoming sea powers. Examples include the maritime republics of Genoaand Venice, Hanseatic League, and the Byzantine navy. The carrack and then the caravel were developed in Iberia. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established.[38] In 1498, by reaching India, Vasco da Gama proved that the access to the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic was possible. These explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642.[39] A major sea power, the Dutch in 1650 owned 16,000 merchant ships. Specialization and modernization During the first half of the 18th century, the French Navy began to develop a new type of vessel known as a ship of the line, featuring seventy-four guns. This type of ship became the backbone of all European fighting fleets. These ships were 56 metres (184 ft) long and their construction required 2,800 oak trees and 40 kilometres (25 mi) of rope; they carried a crew of about 800 sailors and soldiers. Ship designs stayed fairly unchanged until the late 19th century. The industrial revolution, new mechanical methods of propulsion, and the ability to construct ships from metal triggered an explosion in ship design. Factors including the quest for more efficient ships, the end of long running and wasteful maritime conflicts, and the increased financial capacity of industrial powers created an avalanche of more specialized boats and ships. Ships built for entirely new functions, such as firefighting, rescue, and research, also began to appear. In light of this, classification of vessels by type or function can be difficult. Even using very broad functional classifications such as fishery, trade, military, and exploration fails to classify most of the old ships. This difficulty is increased by the fact that the terms such as sloop and frigate are used by old and new ships alike, and often the modern vessels sometimes have little in common with their predecessors. Today In 2007, the world’s fleet included 34,882 commercial vessels with gross tonnage of more than 1,000 tons,[42] totaling 1.04 billion tons.[1] These ships carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2006, a sum that grew by 8% over the previous year.[1] In terms of tonnage, 39% of these ships are tankers, 26% arebulk carriers, 17% container ships and 15% were other types.[1] In 2002, there were 1,240 warships operating in the world, not counting small vessels such as patrol boats. The United States accounted for 3 million tons worth of these vessels, Russia 1.35 million tons, the United Kingdom 504,660 tons and China 402,830 tons. The 20th century saw many naval engagements during the two world wars, the Cold War, and the rise to power of naval forces of the two blocs. The size of the world’s fishing fleet is more difficult to estimate. The largest of these are counted as commercial vessels, but the smallest are legion.Fishing vessels can be found in most seaside villages in the world. As of 2004, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated 4 million fishing vessels were operating worldwide.[43] Types of ships[edit] Ships are difficult to classify, mainly because there are so many criteria to base classification on. One classification is based on propulsion; with ships categorised as a sailing ship, a steamship, or a motorship. Sailing ships are propelled solely by means of sails. Another way to categorize ships and boats is based on their use, as described by Paulet and Presles.[46] This system includes military ships, commercial vessels, fishing boats, pleasure craft and competitive boats. In this section, ships are classified using the first four of those categories, and adding a section for lake and river boats, and one for vessels which fall outside these categories. Commercial vessels Commercial vessels or merchant ships can be divided into three broad categories: cargo ships, passenger ships, and special-purpose ships.[47] Cargo ships transport dry and liquid cargo. Dry cargo can be transported in bulk by bulk carriers, packed directly onto a general cargo ship in break-bulk, packed in intermodal containers as aboard a container ship, or driven aboard as in roll-on roll-off ships. Liquid cargo is generally carried in bulk aboard tankers, such as oil tankers which may include both crude and finished products of oil, chemical tankers which may also carry vegetable oils other than chemicals and LPG/LNG tankers, Passenger ships range in size from small river ferries to very large cruise ships. This type of vessel includes ferries, which move passengers and vehicles on short trips; ocean liners, which carry passengers from one place to another; and cruise ships, which carry passengers on voyages undertaken for pleasure Special-purpose vessels are not used for transport but for other tasks. Examples include tugboats, pilot boats, rescue boats, cable ships, research vessels, survey vessels, and icebreakers. Most commercial vessels have full hull-forms to maximize cargo capacity.[citation needed] Commercial vessels generally have a crew headed by a captain, with deck officers and marine engineers on larger vessels. Special-purpose vessels often have specialized crew if necessary, for example scientists aboard research vessels. Commercial vessels are typically powered by a single propeller driven by a diesel or, less usually, gas turbine engine.[citation needed] The fastest vessels may use pump-jet engines.[citation needed] Naval vessels Naval vessels are those used by a navy for military purposes. There have been many types of naval vessel. Modern naval vessels can be broken down into three categories: surface warships, submarines, and support and auxiliary vessels. Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines and amphibious assault ships. The distinction between cruisers, destroyers, frigates, and corvettes is not rigorous; the same vessel may be described differently in different navies. Battleships were used during the Second World War and occasionally since then, but were made obsolete by the use of carrier-borne aircraft and guided missiles.[48] Most navies also include many types of support and auxiliary vessel, such as minesweepers, patrol boats, offshore patrol vessels, replenishment ships, and hospital ships which are designatedmedical treatment facilities.[49] Fast combat vessels such as cruisers and destroyers usually have fine hulls to maximize speed and maneuverability. They also usually have advanced electronics and communication systems, as well as weapons. Fishing vessels Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world’s fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels.[43] More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels[51] were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.[52] Fishing boats are generally small, often little more than 30 meters (98 ft) but up to 100 metres (330 ft) for a large tuna or whaling ship. Aboard a fish processing vessel, the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Weather vessels[edit] A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in marine weather forecasting. Surface weather observations were taken hourly, and four radiosonde releases occurred daily. [54] It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights. Proposed as early as 1927 by the aviation community,[56] the establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a global network of weather ships in 1948, with 13 to be supplied by the United States. Their crews were normally out to sea for three weeks at a time, returning to port for 10 day stretches.[54] Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like other ships tended to for safety reasons.[58] They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as tropical cyclones.[59] The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to theGreat Storm of 1987.[60] Beginning in the 1970s, their role became largely superseded by weather buoys due to the ships’ significant cost.[61] The agreement of the use of weather ships by the international community ended in 1990. The last weather ship was Polarfront, known as weather station M (â€Å"Mike†), which was put out of operation on 1 January 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation. Inland and coastal boats Many types of boats and ships are designed for inland and coastal waterways. These are the vessels that trade upon the lakes, rivers and canals. Barges are a prime example of inland vessels. Barges towed along canals by draft animals on an adjacent towpath contended with the railway in the early industrial revolution but were out competed in the carriage of high value items because of the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility ofrail transport. Riverboats and inland ferries are specially designed to carry passengers, cargo, or both in the challenging river environment. Rivers present special hazards to vessels. They usually have varying water flows that alternately lead to high speed water flows or protruding rock hazards. Changing siltation patterns may cause the sudden appearance of shoal waters, and often floating or sunken logs and trees (called snags) can endanger the hulls and propulsion of riverboats. Riverboats are generally of shallow draft, being broad of beam and rather square in plan, with a low freeboard and high topsides. Riverboats can survive with this type of configuration as they do not have to withstand the high winds or large waves that are seen on large lakes, seas, or oceans. Lake freighters, also called lakers, are cargo vessels that ply the Great Lakes. The most well-known is the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, the latest major vessel to be wrecked on the Lakes. These vessels are traditionally called boats, not ships. Visiting ocean-going vessels are called â€Å"salties.† Because of their additional beam, very large salties are never seen inland of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Because the smallest of the Soo Locks is larger than any Seaway lock, salties that can pass through the Seaway may travel anywhere in the Great Lakes. Because of their deeper draft, salties may accept partial loads on the Great Lakes, â€Å"topping off† when they have exited the Seaway. Similarly, the largest lakers are confined to the Upper Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron,Erie) because they are too large to use the Seaway locks, beginning at the Welland Canal that bypasses the Niagara River. Since the freshwater lakes are less corrosive to ships than the salt water of the oceans, lakers tend to last much longer than ocean freighters. Lakers older than 50 years are not unusual, and as of 2005, all were over 20 years of age.[62] The St. Mary’s Challenger, built in 1906 as the William P Snyder, is the oldest laker still working on the Lakes. Similarly, the E.M. Ford, built in 1898 as the Presque Isle, was sailing the lakes 98 years later in 1996. As of 2007 the Ford was still afloat as a stationary transfer vessel at a riverside cement silo in Saginaw, Michigan. Architecture[edit] Some components exist in vessels of any size and purpose. Every vessel has a hull of sorts. Every vessel has some sort of propulsion, whether it’s a pole, an ox, or a nuclear reactor. Most vessels have some sort of steering system. Other characteristics are common, but not as universal, such as compartments, holds, a superstructure, and equipment such as anchors and winches. Hull For a ship to float, its weight must be less than that of the water displaced by the ship’s hull.[63] There are many types of hulls, from logs lashed together to form a raft to the advanced hulls of America’s Cup sailboats. A vessel may have a single hull , two in the case ofcatamarans, or three in the case of trimarans. Hulls have several elements. The bow is the foremost part of the hull. Many ships feature a bulbous bow. The keel is at the very bottom of the hull, extending the entire length of the ship. The rear part of the hull is known as the stern, and many hulls have a flat back known as a transom. Common hull appendages include propellers for propulsion, rudders for steering, and stabilizers to quell a ship’s rolling motion. Other hull features can be related to the vessel’s work, such as fishing gear and sonar domes. Hulls are subject to various hydrostatic and hydrodynamic constraints. The key hydrostatic constraint is that it must be able to support the entire weight of the boat, and maintain stability even with often unevenly distributed weight. Hydrodynamic constraints include the ability to withstand shock waves, weather collisions and groundings. Propulsion systems Propulsion systems for ships fall into three categories: human propulsion, sailing, and mechanical propulsion. Human propulsion includes rowing, which was used even on large galleys. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays and spars and controlled by ropes. Sail systems were the dominant form of propulsion until the 19th century. Mechanical propulsion systems generally consist of a motor or engine turning a propeller, or less frequently, an impeller or wave propulsion fins. Steam engines were first used for this purpose, but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels For ships with independent propulsion systems for each side, such as manual oars or some paddles,[64] steering systems may not be necessary. In most designs, such as boats propelled by engines or sails, a steering system becomes necessary. The most common is a rudder, a submerged plane located at the rear of the hull. Rudders are rotated to generate a lateral force which turns the boat. Rudders can be rotated by a tiller, manual wheels, or electro-hydraulic systems. Autopilot systems combine mechanical rudders with navigation systems. Ducted propellers are sometimes used for steering. Some propulsion systems are inherently steering systems. Examples include the outboard motor, the bow thruster, and the Z-drive. Some sails, such as jibs and the mizzen sail on a ketch rig, are used more for steering than propulsion. Holds, compartments, and the superstructure[edit] Larger boats and ships generally have multiple decks and compartments. Separate berthings and heads are found on sailboats over about 25 feet (7.6 m). Fishing boats and cargo ships typically have one or more cargo holds. Most larger vessels have an engine room, a galley, and various compartments for work. Tanks are used to store fuel, engine oil, and fresh water. Ballast tanks are equipped to change a ship’s trim and modify its stability. Superstructures are found above the main deck. On sailboats, these are usually very low. On modern cargo ships, they are almost always located near the ship’s stern. On passenger ships and warships, the superstructure generally extends far forward. Equipment[edit] Shipboard equipment varies from ship to ship depending on such factors as the ship’s era, design, area of operation, and purpose. Some types of equipment that are widely found include: Masts can be the home of antennas, navigation lights, radar transponders, fog signals, and similar devices often required by law. Ground tackle includes equipment such as mooring winches, windlasses, and anchors. Anchors are used to moor ships in shallow water. They are connected to the ship by a rope or chain. On larger vessels, the chain runs through a hawsepipe. Cargo equipment such as cranes and cargo booms are used to load and unload cargo and ship’s stores. Safety equipment such as lifeboats, liferafts, and survival suits are carried aboard many vessels for emergency use. Design considerations Hydrostatics[edit] Boats and ships are kept on (or slightly above) the water in three ways: For most vessels, known as displacement vessels, the vessel’s weight is offset by that of the water displaced by the hull. For planing ships and boats, such as the hydrofoil, the lift developed by the movement of the foil through the water increases with the vessel’s speed, until the vessel is foilborne. For non-displacement craft such as hovercraft and air-cushion vehicles, the vessel is suspended over the water by a cushion of high-pressure air it projects downwards against the surface of the water. A vessel is in equilibrium when the upwards and downwards forces are of equal magnitude. As a vessel is lowered into the water its weight remains constant but the corresponding weight of water displaced by its hull increases. When the two forces are equal, the boat floats. Hydrodynamics[edit] The advance of a vessel through water is resisted by the water. This resistance can be broken down into several components, the main ones being the friction of the water on the hull and wave making resistance. To reduce resistance and therefore increase the speed for a given power, it is necessary to reduce the wetted surface and use submerged hull shapes that produce low amplitude waves. To do so, high-speed vessels are often more slender, with fewer or smaller appendages. The friction of the water is also reduced by regular maintenance of the hull to remove the sea creatures and algae that accumulate there. Antifouling paint is commonly used to assist in this. Advanced designs such as the bulbous bow assist in decreasing wave resistance. A simple way of considering wave-making resistance is to look at the hull in relation to its wake. At speeds lower than the wave propagation speed, the wave rapidly dissipates to the sides. As the hull approaches the wave propagation speed, however, the wake at the bow begins to build up faster than it can dissipate, and so it grows in amplitude. Since the water is not able to â€Å"get out of the way of the hull fast enough†, the hull, in essence, has to climb over or push through the bow wave. This results in an exponential increase in resistance with increasing speed. This hull speed is found by the formula: or, in metric units: Where L is the length of the waterline in feet or meters. When the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 0.94, it starts to outrun most of its bow wave, and the hull actually settles slightly in the water as it is now only supported by two wave peaks. As the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 1.34, the hull speed, the wavelength is now longer than the hull, and the stern is no longer supported by the wake, causing the stern to squat, and the bow rise. The hull is now starting to climb its own bow wave, and resistance begins to increase at a very high rate. While it is possible to drive a displacement hull faster than a speed/length ratio of 1.34, it is prohibitively expensive to do so. Most large vessels operate at speed/length ratios well below that level, at speed/length ratios of under 1.0. For large projects with adequate funding, hydrodynamic resistance can be tested experimentally in a hull testing pool or using tools of computational fluid dynamics. Vessels are also subject to ocean surface waves and sea swell as well as effects of wind and weather. These movements can be stressful for passengers and equipment, and must be controlled if possible. The rolling movement can be controlled, to an extent, by ballasting or by devices such as fin stabilizers. Pitching movement is more difficult to limit and can be dangerous if the bow submerges in the waves, a phenomenon called pounding. Sometimes, ships must change course or speed to stop violent rolling or pitching. How it has been convincingly shown in scientific studies of the 21st century[65][66], controllability of some vessels decreases dramatically in some cases that are conditioned by effects of the bifurcation memory. This class of vessels includes ships with high manoeuvring capabilities, aircraft and controlled underwater vehicles designed to be unstable in steady-state motion that are interesting in terms of applications. These features must be considered in designing ships and in their control in critical situations. Lifecycle A ship will pass through several stages during its career. The first is usually an initial contract to build the ship, the details of which can vary widely based on relationships between theshipowners, operators, designers and the shipyard. Then, the design phase carried out by a naval architect. Then the ship is constructed in a shipyard. After construction, the vessel is launched and goes into service. Ships end their careers in a number of ways, ranging from shipwrecks to service as a museum ship to the scrapyard. Design A vessel’s design starts with a specification, which a naval architect uses to create a project outline, assess required dimensions, and create a basic layout of spaces and a rough displacement. After this initial rough draft, the architect can create an initial hull design, a general profile and an initial overview of the ship’s propulsion. At this stage, the designer can iterate on the ship’s design, adding detail and refining the design at each stage. As environmental laws are strictening, ship designers need to create their design in such a way that the ship -when it nears its end-of-term- can be disassmbledor disposed easily and that waste is reduced to a minimum. Construction[edit] Ship construction takes place in a shipyard, and can last from a few months for a unit produced in series, to several years to reconstruct a wooden boat, to more than 10 years for an aircraft carrier Generally, construction starts with the hull, and on vessels over about 30 meters (98 ft), by the laying of the keel. This is done in a drydock or on land. Once the hull is assembled and painted, it is launched. The last stages, such as raising the superstructure and adding equipment and accommodation, can be done after the vessel is afloat. Once completed, the vessel is delivered to the customer. Ship launching is often a ceremony of some significance, and is usually when the vessel is formally named. Repair and conversion Ships undergo nearly constant maintenance during their career, whether they be underway, pierside, or in some cases, in periods of reduced operating status between charters or shipping seasons. Vessels that sustain major damage at sea may be repaired at a facility equipped for major repairs, such as a shipyard. Ships may also be converted for a new purpose: oil tankers are often converted into floating production storage and offloading units. End of service Most ocean-going cargo ships have a life expectancy of between 20 and 30 years. A sailboat made of plywood or fiberglass can last between 30 and 40 years. Solid wooden ships can last much longer but require regular maintenance. Carefully maintained steel-hulled yachts can have a lifespan of over 100 years. As ships age, forces such as corrosion, osmosis, and rotting compromise hull strength, and a vessel becomes too dangerous to sail. At this point, it can bescuttled at sea or scrapped by shipbreakers. Ships can also be used as museum ships, or expended to construct breakwaters or artificial reefs. Many ships do not make it to the scrapyard, and are lost in fires, collisions, grounding, or sinking at sea. There are more than 3 million shipwrecks on the ocean floor, the United Nations estimates. Buoyancy A floating boat displaces its weight in water. The material of the boat hull may be denser than water, but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer. If the boat floats, the mass of the boat (plus contents) as a whole divided by the volume below the waterline is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal, and so the boat sinks a little to compensate.